Mishnah, Midrash, and More: What are These Jewish Books?

Jewish Books "On One Foot":
Jewish tradition draws from a number of texts. This source sheet explains many of them, using the recitation of the Shema as an example of how each source works and how Jewish law evolves through the sources.

Tanach

The Tanach is the Hebrew Bible. TaNaCh stands for Torah, Nevi’im (Prophets), and Ketuvim (Writings). The first date that we have from archeology is that the Israelites entered the Land of Israel (under Joshua) around 1200 BCE, because that’s when the pottery changes. Tradition ascribes the Torah as having been dictated by G-d to Moses on Mt. Sinai (around 1240 BCE). Modern scholarship ascribes the Torah to different authors, traceable through the different names used for G-d (the “Documentary Hypothesis”). The Bible was closed around 444 BCE, traditionally by the prophet Ezra.

The Masorites added the trope and the vowels in the Land of Israel in the 800s; because trope also function as punctuation, this defined where the verses ended as well. The Archbishop of Canterbury, Stephen Langton, added chapters around 1200; this explains why the 7th day of Creation is in the same aliyah as the other 6 days (a Jewish division), but it is in Chapter 2 of Genesis instead of Chapter 1 (a Christian division). Jews nonetheless embraced chapters, even if they didn’t always line up with Jewish divisions. Christians didn’t get around to putting verse numbers in their translations until the Geneva Bible of 1551, which drew on the Jewish division of verses.

דברים ו׳:ד׳-ט׳

(ד) שְׁמַ֖ע יִשְׂרָאֵ֑ל יְהוָ֥ה אֱלֹהֵ֖ינוּ יְהוָ֥ה ׀ אֶחָֽד׃ (ה) וְאָ֣הַבְתָּ֔ אֵ֖ת יְהוָ֣ה אֱלֹהֶ֑יךָ בְּכָל־לְבָבְךָ֥ וּבְכָל־נַפְשְׁךָ֖ וּבְכָל־מְאֹדֶֽךָ׃ (ו) וְהָי֞וּ הַדְּבָרִ֣ים הָאֵ֗לֶּה אֲשֶׁ֨ר אָנֹכִ֧י מְצַוְּךָ֛ הַיּ֖וֹם עַל־לְבָבֶֽךָ׃ (ז) וְשִׁנַּנְתָּ֣ם לְבָנֶ֔יךָ וְדִבַּרְתָּ֖ בָּ֑ם בְּשִׁבְתְּךָ֤ בְּבֵיתֶ֙ךָ֙ וּבְלֶכְתְּךָ֣ בַדֶּ֔רֶךְ וּֽבְשָׁכְבְּךָ֖ וּבְקוּמֶֽךָ׃ (ח) וּקְשַׁרְתָּ֥ם לְא֖וֹת עַל־יָדֶ֑ךָ וְהָי֥וּ לְטֹטָפֹ֖ת בֵּ֥ין עֵינֶֽיךָ׃ (ט) וּכְתַבְתָּ֛ם עַל־מְזוּזֹ֥ת בֵּיתֶ֖ךָ וּבִשְׁעָרֶֽיךָ׃ (ס)

Deuteronomy 6:4-9

(4) Hear, O Israel! The LORD is our God, the LORD alone. (5) You shall love the LORD your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your might. (6) Take to heart these instructions with which I charge you this day. (7) Impress them upon your children. Recite them when you stay at home and when you are away, when you lie down and when you get up. (8) Bind them as a sign on your hand and let them serve as a symbol on your forehead; (9) inscribe them on the doorposts of your house and on your gates.

Rashi’s Commentary on the Tanach

Rashi is an acronym for Rabbi Shimon Ben Yitzchak. He was a French winemaker who lived from 1040-1105. When he wasn’t making wine, he wrote a commentary on the Tanach and the Talmud. Rashi usually tried to explain the “p’shat”, the literal meaning of the text.

רש"י על דברים ו׳:ד׳:א׳

ה' אלהינו ה' אחד. ה' שֶׁהוּא אֱלֹהֵינוּ עַתָּה, וְלֹא אֱלֹהֵי הָאֻמּוֹת, הוּא עָתִיד לִהְיוֹת ה' אֶחָד, שֶׁנֶּאֱמַר (צפ' ח') כִּי אָז אֶהְפֹּךְ אֶל עַמִּים שָׂפָה בְרוּרָה לִקְרֹא כֻלָּם בְּשֵׁם ה', וְנֶאֱמַר (זכריה י"ד) בַּיּוֹם הַהוּא יִהְיֶה ה' אֶחָד וּשְׁמוֹ אֶחָד (ע' ספרי):

Rashi on Deuteronomy 6:4:1

ה׳ אלהינו ה' אחד means, The Lord who is now our God and not the God of the other peoples of the world, G-d will at some future time be the One (sole) ה׳, as it is said, (Zephaniah 3:9) “For then I will turn to the peoples a pure language that they may all call upon the name of the Lord", and it is further said, (Zechariah 14:9) “In that day shall the Lord be One (אחד) and His name One" (cf. Sifrei Devarim 31:10).

Mishnah

Both during and after the time of the Second Temple, there were many discussions about how to apply the laws of the Torah to “modern” times. Around the year 200 CE, Rabbi Judah the Prince organized these discussions into 6 large topics (“orders”), and then 63 sub-topics (“tractates”). In the Seder song “Who Knows One”, this is the answer for “Who knows Six?”.

משנה ברכות א׳:א׳

(א) מֵאֵימָתַי קוֹרִין אֶת שְׁמַע בְּעַרְבִית. מִשָּׁעָה שֶׁהַכֹּהֲנִים נִכְנָסִים לֶאֱכֹל בִּתְרוּמָתָן, עַד סוֹף הָאַשְׁמוּרָה הָרִאשׁוֹנָה, דִּבְרֵי רַבִּי אֱלִיעֶזֶר. וַחֲכָמִים אוֹמְרִים, עַד חֲצוֹת. רַבָּן גַּמְלִיאֵל אוֹמֵר, עַד שֶׁיַּעֲלֶה עַמּוּד הַשָּׁחַר. מַעֲשֶׂה שֶׁבָּאוּ בָנָיו מִבֵּית הַמִּשְׁתֶּה, אָמְרוּ לוֹ, לֹא קָרִינוּ אֶת שְׁמַע. אָמַר לָהֶם, אִם לֹא עָלָה עַמּוּד הַשַּׁחַר, חַיָּבִין אַתֶּם לִקְרוֹת. וְלֹא זוֹ בִּלְבַד, אֶלָּא כָּל מַה שֶּׁאָמְרוּ חֲכָמִים עַד חֲצוֹת, מִצְוָתָן עַד שֶׁיַּעֲלֶה עַמּוּד הַשָּׁחַר. הֶקְטֵר חֲלָבִים וְאֵבָרִים, מִצְוָתָן עַד שֶׁיַּעֲלֶה עַמּוּד הַשָּׁחַר. וְכָל הַנֶּאֱכָלִים לְיוֹם אֶחָד, מִצְוָתָן עַד שֶׁיַּעֲלֶה עַמּוּד הַשָּׁחַר. אִם כֵּן, לָמָּה אָמְרוּ חֲכָמִים עַד חֲצוֹת, כְּדֵי לְהַרְחִיק אֶת הָאָדָם מִן הָעֲבֵרָה:

Mishnah Berakhot 1:1

(1) From what time may one recite the Shema in the evening? From the time that the priests enter [their houses] in order to eat their terumah until the end of the first watch, the words of Rabbi Eliezer. The sages say: until midnight. Rabban Gamaliel says: until dawn. Once it happened that his sons came home [late] from a wedding feast and they said to him: we have not yet recited the [evening] Shema. He said to them: if it is not yet dawn you are still obligated to recite. And not in respect to this alone did they so decide, but wherever the sages say “until midnight,” the mitzvah may be performed until dawn. The burning of the fat and the pieces may be performed till dawn. Similarly, all [the offerings] that are to be eaten within one day may be eaten till dawn. Why then did the sages say “until midnight”? In order to keep a man far from transgression.

Pirkei Avot

Pirkei Avot is a collection of quotes from the rabbis of the Mishnah. They lived from the years 300 BCE to 200 CE, and their sayings form a tractate of the Talmud. It’s one of the few tractates of the Mishnah which has no Gemara commenting on it, and it’s the only tractate of the Talmud which is about ethical/moral ways of living but not about Jewish law. Pirkei Avot is traditionally studied after Shabbat Mincha in the summer months (Passover to Rosh Hashanah), so it’s printed in its entirety at that spot in most siddurim.

משנה אבות א׳:א׳

(א) משֶׁה קִבֵּל תּוֹרָה מִסִּינַי, וּמְסָרָהּ לִיהוֹשֻׁעַ, וִיהוֹשֻׁעַ לִזְקֵנִים, וּזְקֵנִים לִנְבִיאִים, וּנְבִיאִים מְסָרוּהָ לְאַנְשֵׁי כְנֶסֶת הַגְּדוֹלָה. הֵם אָמְרוּ שְׁלשָׁה דְבָרִים, הֱווּ מְתוּנִים בַּדִּין, וְהַעֲמִידוּ תַלְמִידִים הַרְבֵּה, וַעֲשׂוּ סְיָג לַתּוֹרָה:

Pirkei Avot 1:1

(1) Moses received the Torah at Sinai and transmitted it to Joshua, Joshua to the elders, and the elders to the prophets, and the prophets to the Men of the Great Assembly. They said three things: Be patient in [the administration of] justice, raise many disciples and make a fence round the Torah.

Midrash

If the Mishnah explained the “how” of the Torah, and Rashi explained the “what” of the Torah, Midrash explains the “so what” of the Torah. Halachic Midrash seeks to explain the deeper meaning of the text, while Aggadic Midrash seeks to explain the missing parts of the stories. For example, what did Cain and Abel talk about in their last conversation? The Torah only says that they talked, so Midrash seeks to fill in the gaps. Classical Midrashic texts were written between 200 CE and 1200 CE. The Mechilta covers Exodus, Sifra is about Leviticus, and Sifrei covers Numbers and Deuteronomy. The Tanchuma covers all 5 books. There’s also Midrash Rabbah, with books covering each book in the Torah and each of the 5 megillot - Esther, Song of Songs, Ruth, Lamentations, and Ecclesiastes. People still write midrashim today.

דברים רבה ב׳:ל״ה

דָּבָר אַחֵר, שְׁמַע יִשְׂרָאֵל. מֵהֵיכָן זָכוּ יִשְׂרָאֵל לִקְרִיאַת שְׁמַע, מִשָּׁעָה שֶׁנָּטָה יַעֲקֹב לְמִיתָה קָרָא לְכָל הַשְּׁבָטִים וְאָמַר לָהֶן שֶׁמָּא מִשֶּׁאֲנִי נִפְטַר מִן הָעוֹלָם אַתֶּם מִשְׁתַּחֲוִים לֵאלוֹהַּ אַחֵר, מִנַּיִן, שֶׁכָּךְ כְּתִיב (בראשית מט, ב): הִקָּבְצוּ וְשִׁמְעוּ בְּנֵי יַעֲקֹב וגו', מַהוּ (בראשית מט, ב): וְשִׁמְעוּ אֶל יִשְׂרָאֵל אֲבִיכֶם, אָמַר לָהֶן, אֵל יִשְׂרָאֵל, אֲבִיכֶם הוּא. אָמְרוּ לוֹ, שְׁמַע יִשְׂרָאֵל ה' אֱלֹהֵינוּ ה' אֶחָד, וְהוּא אוֹמֵר בִּלְחִישָׁה בָּרוּךְ שֵׁם כְּבוֹד מַלְכוּתוֹ לְעוֹלָם וָעֶד. אָמַר רַבִּי לֵוִי וּמַה יִּשְׂרָאֵל אוֹמְרִים עַכְשָׁו, שְׁמַע אָבִינוּ יִשְׂרָאֵל אוֹתוֹ הַדָּבָר שֶׁצִּוִּיתָנוּ נוֹהֵג בָּנוּ ה' אֱלֹהֵינוּ ה' אֶחָד.

Devarim Rabbah 2:35

Another idea: "Listen, O Israel-" from where did Israel merit the [commandment of the] reading of Shema? From the time that Jacob spread out to die, he called to all the tribes and said to them: "Maybe once I pass away, you will bow to another power?" From where [can we learn this]? For so it is written: "Gather and listen, sons of Jacob, [and listen to your father Israel] (Genesis 49)." What is 'and listen to your father Israel (Heb. V'shimu El Yisrael Avichem)'? He said to them: The G-d of Israel is your father (an alternate meaning of 'El Yisrael Avichem')." They said to him: "Listen O Israel, Hashem is our G-d, Hashem is one." And he said in a whisper: "Blessed be the glorious name of His Kingship (ie. G-d) forever." Rabbi Levi said: "And what do Israel say today? 'Listen, our forefather Israel, the same thing that you commanded us still abides among us, Hashem is our G-d, Hashem is one.'"

There are also versions of this story in Sifrei and Tanchuma.

Talmud

After the Mishnah was compiled in the Land of Israel around 200 CE, the rabbis in Israel and Babylonia spent decades and decades analyzing it to figure out exactly how to implement what it said. These discussions became known as “Gemara”. The discussions in Israel were compiled around 400 CE into the Jerusalem Talmud (actually done in Tiberius), while the discussions in Babylonia were compiled around 500 CE into the Babylonian Talmud. This became the better-known Talmud after the Muslim Caliphate in Baghdad allowed that Talmud to spread through its communication networks. Now, when somebody says “The Talmud”, they mean “The Babylonian Talmud”.

ברכות ב׳ א:י״ב

אָמַר מָר מִשָּׁעָה שֶׁהַכֹּהֲנִים נִכְנָסִים לֶאֱכוֹל בִּתְרוּמָתָן. מִכְּדִי כֹּהֲנִים אֵימַת קָא אָכְלִי תְּרוּמָה? — מִשְּׁעַת צֵאת הַכּוֹכָבִים, לִתְנֵי: ״מִשְּׁעַת צֵאת הַכּוֹכָבִים״!

Berakhot 2a:12

The Gemara proceeds to clarify the rest of the mishna. The Master said in the mishna that the beginning of the period when one recites Shema in the evening is when the priests enter to partake of their teruma. However, this does not specify a definitive time. When do the priests enter to partake of their teruma? From the time of the emergence of the stars. If that is the case, then let the tanna teach that the time for the recitation of the evening Shema is from the time of the emergence of the stars.

Rashi’s Commentary on the Talmud

Rashi (France, 1040-1105) not only wrote a commentary on the literal meaning of the Tanach, he also wrote a commentary explaining what 30 of the 39 tractates of the Talmud were talking about (he died before finishing this project). When Daniel Bomberg made the first printed Talmud in 1520 he included Rashi’s commentary, and thereafter Rashi has always been included in printed copies of the Talmud. His commentary is always the part of the page closest to the middle of the book so it’s easy to find. Particularly given that there are traditionally no vowels and very little punctuation in the Talmud, Rashi is indispensable in understanding the Talmud.

רש"י על ברכות ב׳ א:א׳:א׳

מאימתי קורין את שמע בערבין. משעה שהכהנים נכנסים לאכול בתרומתן – כהנים שנטמאו וטבלו והעריב שמשן והגיע עתם לאכול בתרומה:

Rashi on Berakhot 2a:1:1

From what time do we read the shema at night? From the time that the Kohanim (priests) enter to eat their Trumah (holy food). --- Kohanim that became defiled, and then immersed (in the mikvah), and the sun has set [reseting their purity], then they are allowed to eat Trumah.

Mishneh Torah

The Mishneh Torah was written by Maimonides (1135-1204), a.k.a. The Rambam. The Rambam’s main job was physician to the Sultan, and in his spare time he set out to answer the question “What should a Jew do?” He did this mostly by reorganizing the thoughts of the Talmud, but also adding his own knowledge 600 years later. At first the Mishneh Torah was controversial because it took out all of the back-and-forth in the Talmud and just gave a bottom line answer, but this later became seen as a strength.

משנה תורה, הלכות קריאת שמע א׳:ט׳

אֵיזֶה הוּא זְמַן קְרִיאַת שְׁמַע בַּלַּיְלָה. מִצְוָתָהּ מִשְּׁעַת יְצִיאַת הַכּוֹכָבִים עַד חֲצִי הַלַּיְלָה. וְאִם עָבַר וְאִחֵר וְקָרָא עַד שֶׁלֹּא עָלָה עַמּוּד הַשַּׁחַר יָצָא יְדֵי חוֹבָתוֹ שֶׁלֹּא אָמְרוּ עַד חֲצוֹת אֶלָּא כְּדֵי לְהַרְחִיק אָדָם מִן הַפְּשִׁיעָה:

Mishneh Torah, Reading the Shema 1:9

When is the time for reading the Shema? In the evening, the duty is correctly performed if it is read at any time from the first appearance of the stars till midnight. If one however transgressed and delayed, but read the Shema before daybreak, he has discharged the obligation. The Sages fixed midnight as the limit only in order to prevent complete violation.

Shulchan Aruch

The Shulchan Aruch was published by Rabbi Joseph Caro in 1563 as a “Code of Jewish Law”. It updates the Mishneh Torah as a way of explaining what to do in every situation that it could think of. In general it gives Sephardic practice, so the Rema (Rabbi Moses Isserles) wrote a gloss giving the Ashkenazic practice when it was different. There are 4 sections to the Shulchan Aruch:
Orach Chayim - the laws about Jewish time (prayer time and holidays)
Yoreh De’ah - the laws about Jewish living (kashrut, conversion, mourning, Israel)
Even Ha’ezer - the laws about getting married and divorced
Choshen Mishpat - the laws about business, money, and courts

אורח חיים נ״ח:ה׳

אם נאנס ולא קרא ק"ש ערבית עד שעלה עמוד השחר כיון שעדיין לא הנץ החמה קורא ק"ש ויוצא בה ידי חובת קריאת שמע ערבית ואם היה אנוס באותה שעה לצאת לדרך מקום גדודי חיה ולסטים לא יקרא אז ק"ש פעם שנית לצאת בה ידי חובת ק"ש של יום שמאחר שעשה לאותה שעה לילה אי אפשר לחזור ולעשותה יום:

Shulchan Arukh, Orach Chayim 58:5

If one was unavoidably prevented [from reading Shema at the appropriate time], and didn't recite the evening recitation of the Shema until daybreak, since the sun has not yet budded, one may recite the recitation of the Shema and fulfill the obligation of the evening recitation of the Shema. And if one was unavoidably prevented at that time - [for instance] to travel in a place with bands of wild animals and bandits - one should not recite the recitation of the Shema a second time to fulfill the obligation of the daytime recitation of the Shema because once one made that time "night," it's impossible to retract and make it "day."

Mishnah Berurah

The Mishnah Berurah was written by the Chofetz Chayim (Rabbi Israel Meir Kagan) in the late 1800s. It takes the Orach Chayim section of the Shulchan Aruch (laws about prayer, synagogue, Shabbat, and holidays) and explains various ways of thinking about them as of the late 1800s. It tends to lean toward the stricter of the options that it presents when it gives options.

משנה ברורה נ״ח:ה׳

(ה) שהוא רביע היום - ואין חילוק בין ימות הקיץ שהיום ארוך ובין ימות החורף שהיום קצר חשבינן היום לי"ב שעות ולעולם חלק רביע מהיום הוא זמן ק"ש לכך יש ליזהר בימי החורף למהר לקרוא ק"ש מאחר שהיום קצר ורביע היום קצר [ט"ז] ובאמת בימי הקיץ צריך ליזהר טפי דדרך ב"א לעמוד בזמן אחד כמו בימות החורף ואז כבר חלף ועבר ק"ש דכל שהיום גדול יותר זמן ק"ש ממהר לבוא וצריך לגומרה כולה בזמנה והמאחרים קריאת שמע בשביל ציצית או תפילין טועים אלא יקרא ק"ש בברכותיה בזמנה בלא ציצית ותפילין וכשיהיה לו יניחם ויקרא בהם ק"ש או פרשה אחרת או מזמור תהלים. ואפילו אם ספק לו שמא יעבור זמן ק"ש ג"כ אין להמתין על טלית ותפילין דאינו מעכב זה את זה אבל בלא"ה ימתין דכל הקורא ק"ש בלא תפילין כאלו מעיד עדות שקר בעצמו. ויש אנשים שמאחרים זמן ק"ש בשביל תפילה בצבור וג"ז שלא כדין הוא. ועכ"פ יזהרו לקרות שמע בזמנה קודם התפלה ולכוין לצאת בזה וכנ"ל בסוף סי' מ"ו במשנה ברורה עי"ש ואין לאחר הקריאה לבהכ"נ בשביל הזקנים המאחרים לבוא ויצטרכו להתפלל ביחידי כיון שעי"ז יעבור זמן ק"ש ואין אומרים לו לאדם חטא בשביל שיזכה חבירך ובשבת ויו"ט מצוי מאד לעבור זמן ק"ש מפני כמה דברים ע"כ החכם עיניו בראשו לקבץ מנין ולהתפלל קודם או עכ"פ לקרות שמע בזמנו קודם שיעמוד להתפלל עם הצבור וכנ"ל בסוף סימן מ"ו ועי"ש בביאור הגר"א ובבה"ל שם:

Mishnah Berurah 58:5

58:5. If for a good reason one did not read the evening Shema by dawn, since (20) the sun has not yet risen one can read the Shema and fulfill the evening Shema. And if he is in a rush because he is going to a place of wild animals and/or robbers, (21) he should still not read Shema (22) a second time in order to read the day’s Shema, because since he declared it to be night [by reading the evening Shema] he cannot go back (23) and make it day.

MB 20: the sun – And some people are sleeping at that time, therefore at a pressing time it is considered in the time frame of “and when you lie down” but normally, even after the fact, this is not sufficient to fulfill the commandment.

MB 21: he should not read – there are those who disagree, and see the Eliya Raba and the Gr”a.

MB 22: a second time – even after the time where he can recognize his friend at a distance of 4 amot [until sunrise].

MB 23: and make it day – rather he should wait, perhaps he will be able to say it at the proper time.

https://torah.org/learning/mishna-berura-s58/

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